The great Muslim scientist of the 11th century - al-Biruni

From. Edward Panache

LOGIN

As one of the civilizations with the most influence and contribution to humanity, Islam has given a lot of human knowledge. At the height of the flowering of this civilization, great developments were achieved in many fields of science. such as: mathematics, algebra, astronomy, medicine, botany, philosophy, logic, ethics, and many other fields. Names such as: Farabi, Ibni Sina (Avicenna), Ibni Rushd (Averroes), Ibni Khaldun, Jabir bin Hajjan, are only a very small part of the scholars and scientists, who with their discoveries and researches laid the foundations of many modern sciences. Undoubtedly, a new element that the Islamic civilization brought was a new paradigm, which consisted in the use of ethics and objectivity by the scientist in the study he developed, giving science a different dimension of development than the one that existed and developed in surrounding geographies. A good example in this case is Abu Rayhan Muhammad bin Ahmed al-Biruni, who with his scientific achievements gave humanity a very good example of scientific methodology and the element of objectivity in knowledge and science.[1]

Biruni, who is known by the nickname "el ustadh"[2] for the researcher it is known, but also enigmatic. He is known by many researchers due to the fact that articles and books have been written about him, and conferences and symposia have been held. But, on the other hand, he remains unknown to many people because his works have remained untranslated and a good part of his works are found in the form of manuscripts. No matter how good the studies are, if we cannot read Birun in his original works, we cannot say that we know him well. However, with the literature at hand, the researcher of our days is able to form knowledge about his life, activity and works.

The earliest sources that provide information on Birun are almost two centuries after his death. The most important work that speaks of him is Mu'jamu'l-Udeba of Yakut (d. 1229).[3] In literature, his name comes in two forms, such as "Biruni" or "Bejruni". As he himself says, Abu Rayhan Muhammed bin Ahmed al-Biruni was born in 973 in the area of ​​Harezm.[4] In some sources, he also goes by the nickname Harezmi, that is, in the name of the region from which he came. But, after the great world-famous mathematician Harism, in order not to be confused, he has been mentioned in the literature under the name of Biruni. Regarding his family, there is little information about his origins. As for his private life, the researchers state that he was not married and spent his life without a family. Whereas, the meaning of the word "Biruni" with which he is called is of Persian origin, and means "provincial, one who comes from abroad".[5]

He is believed to have been born in the town of Kas in the Khrezm region, which is now within the borders of Uzbekistan.[6] He himself will also write a book on the history of his native country, where he gives a list of rulers and some old coins found in Kharezm. Unfortunately, the book has not reached our days and is known only from the quotations made to it.[7] Biruni was distinguished since his childhood for his character devoted to knowledge. His first teacher was Abu Nasr Mansur bin Ali bin Iraq. There are also records of other scholars from whom he had learned, such as Abu Nasr al-Mansur and Yahya al-Mesihi.[8] From a young age he was taken to the palaces of the Harezmshahs, where he spent a good part of his youth.[9] This provided him with political support, which was very important at the time, both for the movement in different countries, but also good conditions in financial terms, so that there was more space for scientific research. After the overthrow of the Harezmshahs, Biruni will remain without political support, and at the age of 22-23 he will leave Kasi to move to Ray (Tehran).[10] There, and then in Baghdad, he will meet scholars of the time, such as Hoxhandi and Abu'l Wafa Buzjani, meetings which will influence his scientific maturation. At the same time, he will establish good relations with the rulers of the Samanits, the Ziyarites and the Ghaznavids, who were the powers of the time. He had even entered the service of the ruler of Zajiri, Qabus bin Vashmgiri, dedicating to the latter one of his best works, al-Asaru'l-Baqiyya.

Later, in 1009, he will return to Kharezm at the invitation of the ruler of Gyrgenji, Abu'l-Hasen Ali bin Maymun, where he stays for seven years. In this period, he dealt with many sciences, such as: algebra, geometry, astronomy, geodesy, medicine, history, geology, chronology, history of religions, geography, physics, biology, etc. It is learned that he knew many languages, such as: Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Syriac and Greek. With the conquest of Harezm by the ruler Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna, in 1017, it is said that about 5 hostages were taken, including many scholars, including Biruni.[11] He was held captive for some time in the Nandana fort. The researchers point out that between Ghazneli Mahmud and Birun there had always been a coldness.[12] During this time he became familiar with Indian culture and thought. It is not known how many times he went to India, but we learn that he stayed there for about 30-40 years. Also, we know that he had learned Sanskrit from prisoners of war in Ghazni. During this time he wrote his masterpiece Kitabu't-Tahkik ma li'l-Hind. In addition to the important systematized data on the culture and people of India, Biruni here also provides various information on the soil, rainfall, flora and fauna which have long been the only sources on this remote geography for many researchers. This is the reason why many researchers have described Biruni as the greatest Indianologist of all time.[13]

After the death of ruler Mahmud in 1030, his son Mes'udi came to the throne, who, unlike his father, will respect Birun, inviting him to the royal palace with the duty of adviser for knowledge and science. During this period, he continued his scientific activity by writing the book Al-Qanun, which he dedicated to Mes'ud.[14] With the killing of Mes'ud in a military expedition, in 1040, his place is succeeded by Mevdudi, who is said to have shown a special respect towards the great scholar. Biruni himself will dedicate the book to Sultan Mevdud Kitab al-Destur. Yes, he will also write the book in Ghazni Kitabu's-Sajdala, which is known as the last book of Birun and which is found as a manuscript in the library of the city of Bursa, in Turkey. In the scientific literature, Biruni is considered an encyclopedist who wrote in various fields of science. Regarding the date of his death, there are different opinions, but most scholars think that he died in Ghazna, in 1048, at the age of 75.[15]

A. His scientific personality

Sartoni, to show the importance of Birun and what he gave to humanity, has called the time when Birun was alive as "the century of Birun."[16] Because the languages ​​he knew, the sciences he dealt with and the scientific results he achieved are enough to place his name among the best in the history of mankind. The researcher Arthur Upham Pope states that the history of mathematics, astronomy, geography, anthropology and the history of religions is not complete without highlighting Biruni's contribution. The scientific journey had accompanied him throughout his life, writing many works in different disciplines. The most important element in his works is research methodology and objectivity in his studies.[17] Even today, Biruni's objectivity in dealing with topics continues to be an example for many researchers.

Another fact, which highlights his scientific side, is the debate he had with the great philosopher Ibn Sina.[18] Biruni himself was also involved in philosophy, even researchers state that he had written works against the followers of the Aristotelian school.[19] He also dealt with the trigonometric functions of arithmetic, in which he is said to have reached important conclusions. Biruni had managed to further develop sines, cosines and tangents, adding to them the functions of secants, cosecants and cotangents. As for the research on astronomy and the observations he had made, it is known that he also wrote a work. As mentioned above, Biruni also dealt with other positive sciences, such as physics, chemistry, etc., in connection with which he left written works.

In Biruni's works, geography and studies related to this field are of particular importance. The researchers say that especially in the century. X, in the Islamic world, much research has been done on geography. In these studies, the foundations of mathematical geography were laid, which will turn into a scientific discipline from Birun's side. He will summarize these achievements in the aforementioned field in the work Tahdid Nihayat al-Emakin. On the practical side, he took an initiative that had never been taken before. With the system he had built, he managed to calculate with an almost negligible percentage of error the coordinates of the space between Ghazna and Baghdad, cities that were separated by a distance and space of more than 2000 km.[20]

Among the fields, in relation to which Biruni is most concerned, that of history also stands out. Researchers say that he left behind works on the history of peoples, chronology and other fields similar to history. His studies, regarding the history of religions, have been used by many scholars for centuries. The reason for using his studies for such a long time has to do with the methodology he had used in his research, but also with the subject matter of his works, which were unique for a long time.

B. Some important works of Biruni

Researchers have not given an exact number of works written by Biruni. This is due to the fact that the number of his books that have reached our days is very few, compared to those attributed to him in various sources. In addition to those that will be presented here, Biruni also wrote many other works in various fields, such as: on the calculation of the age of Indians, on the sport of chess, astronomy, astrology, minerals, precious stones, etc. IN Islamic Encyclopedia, published in Turkey, twenty works of Birun are presented, which are thought to have reached our days, but the number of works of this colossus is many times greater.[21] Here we will suffice by presenting information about some of Birun's main works:

1. Al-Asaru'l-Bakije ani'l Kuruni'l-Alije: It is one of Biruni's most important works and is thought to have been written in 999, when Biruni was 30 years old. Calendars and dates of various holidays of the old peoples have been treated there. The book also provides information on many issues and events in the history of Harezm. It is regarded as the most comprehensive book among all the works of Muslim scholars on chronology. There are twenty chapters, and in the introductory part of the English translated version, information is given on the life of Birun, but elements seen as necessary have also been added.[22]

2. Kitabu't-Tahkik ma li'l-Hind: It was written in 1030 and for many centuries it was the most voluminous book on Indianology. The paper deals with culture, language, faith, nature and other elements of Indian civilization. The Arabic version of the book was completed in 1887, while the English translation was made in 1888 to be published by C. Edward Sachau in London in 1910. In the introduction to the work, the editor provides information on the author, the methodology and the time the book is about.[23]

3. Tahdidu Nihajatu'l Emakin li-Tashihi Mesafeti'l- Mesakin: The book is thought to have been written in 1025, in Ghazna. The work contains studies related to geodesy, but there are also data on geography, geology, astronomy, astrology and history. It details the discovery of an inscription in Afghanistan, detailing various eclipses that occurred during the reign of Emperor Diocletian (285-305). The manuscript of this work is today in the library of Istanbul.

4. Al-Kanunu'l-Mas'udi: It is thought to have been written in 1030 and is accepted as one of his greatest works. There are data on astronomy, astrology, chronology, geography, geodesy, meteorology, trigonometry and many other sciences. For many researchers, special attention has been drawn from this work to the mathematical methods that Biruni used to measure two geographical objects with long distances.[24] Researchers have described this work as an encyclopedia. The book was published in the years 1954-1956 in the format of three volumes.

5. Al-Jamahir fi'l Djavahir: The book was written in the years 1041-1049 and is dedicated to the ruler Mevdudi. In this work, he mainly studied precious stones and other minerals. Also, various sciences have been treated in it, such as: psychology, sociology, medicine, physics, ethnology, history, etc. Researchers have described this work as an overview of Birun's time. The book was published by F. Krenkow in 1936.

6. Kitab'us-Sajdala fi't-Tib: In this work, he also comes before us as a philologist, where he provides data on aspects of different languages. The work is composed of research in the fields of medicine and pharmaceuticals, where Biruni has studied many types of plants and their use as medicines. Also, the names of medicines are given in many languages, such as: Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Greek and many other dialects.

7. Kitab fi'sti'abi'l-Wujhuhi'l-Mumkine fi San'ati'a-Asturlab: This work of Biruni on the astrolabe is in manuscript form and is found in many libraries around the world. Many studies have been done on this work, but the complete translation of the work has not been done yet.[25] In this paper there is also a trigonometric method for measuring the circumference of the earth, which will later be tested in Nandana, India.

8. At-Tafhim fi Eva'ili Sina'ati't-Tenjim: It is thought that the writing of the book was completed in the year 1029. It is a work written in the form of an introduction to astronomy, but it also deals with other fields, such as: mathematics, astrology and geography. The work is available in Arabic and Persian. It will later be translated into English by Ramsay Wright (London 1934).

9. Terjemetu Kitabi Batenjel fi'l-Halas mine'l-Irtibak: Biruni had translated this work from Sanskrit into Arabic. It is about The Yogasutrasin Patanjali. This very important work has been prepared for publication by H. Ritter under the title Albiruni's Übersetzung des Yoga-Sutras des Patanjali.

C. Biruni's methodology

One of the main features that separates Birun from other scholars and scientists of the time is the methodology he used in his studies. In his works, Biruni presents in detail the qualities, the purpose and the way a researcher should develop his research. After expressing the qualities and preparation of the researcher, Biruni then dwells on the topic of how to prepare a good level paper. Then, he dwells on the aspects of methodology, paradigms, analysis and comparisons, elements which are milestones in the preparation of a study.[26] He emphasizes the need for methodology in a study as follows:

"If an author does not adhere scrupulously to the scientific method, then he will produce some superficial data, which will not satisfy even those who know the doctrine, but also others who know the subject. In this case, if he has any real character, he will feel ashamed; but, if he is so base as not to appreciate the truth, he will insist on the originality of his view..."[27]

Eduard Sachau divides the methodology used by Biruni in his work into three parts Tahqiq. When he talks about Indian culture or beliefs, he does not choose to use his own words, but quotes Indian scholars or clerics. Sachau explains Biruni's methodology in these words:he presents Indian civilization as the Indians themselves depict themselves".[28] Biruni first makes a brief presentation of the topic. It then transmits the data on that subject from various Indian scholars who know the tradition best. This aspect is very important for Birun, where he says: "The most important and essential part of the world of Indian thought, is what the Brahmans think and believe, that is what they have prepared to preserve their religion..."[29] And thirdly, it complements the topic by comparing it with thoughts or theories of different faiths or civilizations that have similarities with the topic in question. In this way, it is much easier for the reader to understand the topic covered in the book.

In the scientific process, we notice that Biruni is guided only by reason and logic. This is also the reason that he is very objective in his research, criticism or adjustments he makes on certain topics. Biruni prefers research and study before transmission or imitation and says that there is a lot of difference between these concepts. For Birun, the one who learns by heart, the imitator or the one who does not research in detail is of no value. For him, quality, argument and features are paramount. Observation and experiment are part of Biruni's main research methods. In the many works he has written, he himself expresses the need for scientific methods in studies, an aspect which he himself applied the best.

Another important criterion in Biruni's methodology consists of the critical element. He checks all the data transmitted to him from the earliest books and records. Of course, for Birun, those data or knowledge that contradict logic remain contestable, and for this reason, he uses criticism in his works. In relation to this issue, Biruni himself expresses the need for a critical method in studies through a question he asks: "And how can we trust a data that is contrary to our perceptions?"[30] So, the information he receives, he passes through the sieve of the earliest transmissions on the subject, in the dogmatic texts and finally analyzes them according to the logical element.

D. Birun's concept of history and data on other faiths

Biruni has also made a valuable contribution to the criticism and philosophy of history. His most important work on this subject is Al-Asaru'l-Baqiyya. The data he provides about the Harezm area have a first-hand source importance. He is a witness of the time and the place he lives in, and he transmitted this through the works he left behind. Biruni has given history a philosophical spirit, treating it from different perspectives such as social, economic and political. Because history for him was a difficult science, but at the same time very important. He expresses this element himself when he says:One man's life is not enough to search and bring to light the records of a people."[31]

Biruni studies the history of the world according to geological principles. While the other important aspect in its treatment is that of economic developments. According to him, history consists of shared transmissions of people, experienced at a time and accepted by a nation, and this threshold also constitutes the beginning of history.[32] News or data from early times, which cannot be determined, are studied according to logical comparisons. These are the reasons that Biruni gives special importance to methodology in the study of history. To be a good historian, the researcher must know the geographical factor very well. This element in Biruni stands out in the clearest way. It gives well-defined geographical positions, distances, river directions, which are important elements in the analysis and interpretation of historical events. In most of his works, he gives special importance to the geographical aspect. Researchers emphasize that his data on geography are very accurate, even compared to today's measurements.

Another field of history, in which Birun's works continue to be important, is that of religions. In his books there are data on different beliefs, such as: the beliefs of the ancient Greeks, Buddhism, Hinduism, Zarathustra, Manichaeism, Sabianism, Judaism and the Samaritans, Christianity, Arabic paganism and Islam.[33] His most important book on the history of religions is Kitabu't-Tahkik ma li'l-Hind, which scholars see as a valuable work in the field, despite the fact that almost a thousand years have passed since it was written. Most of the information about Hinduism and Buddhism is found in this work, where he gives detailed information on these two faiths. As mentioned above, in order to better understand these beliefs and their worldviews, Biruni first learned Sanskrit, which was the main key that opened this special world to him, such as the Indian civilization with its own beliefs. In the context of the understanding, study and transmission of data on the above-mentioned beliefs, the works he translated from Samkhya and Patanjali should also be seen. The information that Biruni gives about Judaism and the Samaritans is interesting. Although he states that he has met with leading scholars of Judaism, the sources he cites in some cases turn out to be second-hand. The same thing happens with the Samiri community, who are much smaller in number compared to the Jews. He mentions these beliefs by different names, but treats them under one chapter and tries to emphasize the similarities that exist between them.

Biruni also gives information on Christianity. According to the information he gives in his works, it is thought that Biruni knew all three Christian groups of the East, such as the Melkites, the Jacobites and the Nestorians. In his works, he gives information on Christianity in general, quotes from the Bible and also gives opinions or thoughts of Christian scholars, with whom he corresponded. It also provides detailed data on the heretical Christian sects that existed at the time of Biruni and the geography in which he lived, comparing various elements of these beliefs with similar phenomena of other beliefs.

cONcluSiON

In the article, an attempt was made to present to the Albanian researcher and reader a scientific authority of the Islamic world, such as Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. His encyclopedic dimension makes him a personality, which is far ahead of the time in which he lived. Here it is worth evaluating his insistence on knowledge and science, but also his determination to follow only logic and objectivity in the studies that Biruni has carried out. Especially the methodology that he used in research, is still today the object of analysis for many researchers. Through Biruni we also understand the profile of the scientist of the century. X-XI. He initially faced the lack of literature. To learn and study and to ensure this, he had to enter the service of a ruler or he had to travel to find knowledge. Above all, he had to carry out his studies under the pressure of wars, not being safe and exposed to other dangers of the time. In this context, it should be noted that Biruni is the best example of the scientist of the century. XI.

Another conclusion has to do with a wider dimension, with the relationship and interaction between civilizations. Even if there has been a rivalry between different civilizations for economic, political, military and cultural dominance, it can be freely said that science is an exception here. Scientific studies and achievements have been the result of the accumulation of human experience and knowledge and have been transmitted from one civilization to another, enabling the progress and development of humanity. Immediately after the rise of Islamic civilization, Muslim rulers took an important step by translating thousands of works of the ancient Greeks and other Mediterranean civilizations into Arabic. As a result of these, Muslims achieved remarkable advances in the fields of science. Their achievements were passed on to Europeans, thus laying the foundations of today's Western civilization. It is universally acknowledged that Andalusia has been the address of study for many giants of Western civilization. The works of Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd and other scholars have been taught for many centuries in European chairs. only Al-Kanunu'l-Mas'ud it has been taught for 400 years. This work, as well as other books by Biruni that were cited here, once again show the scientific personality of this colossus, but also the fact that knowledge and scholars are a common value of all humanity.

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[1] Arthur Upham Pope, "Alberuni as a Thinker", Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. 281.

[2] Abu Reyhan Al-Biruni, Maziden Kalanlar, Chev. Ahsen Batur, Selenge Yay.,

Istanbul: 2011, p. 12.

[3] Günay Tümer, Biruni'ye Göre Dinler ve İslam Dini, Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı Yayınları, Ankara: 1991, p. 35.

[4] Kamar Oniah Kamaruzaman, The Works and Contributions of Abu Rayhan Muhammad bin Ahmad Al-Biruni, The International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization, Kuala Lumpur: 2003, p. 29.; Fuat Sezgin, Islamic Science and Technology, Chev. Abdurrahman Aliy, V. I, İBB Kültür A. Ş. Yay., İstanbul: 2008, p. 25.; Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. XIV.

[5] Günay Tümer, "Biruni", Türkiye Diyanet Vakfi Islam Encyclopedia, TDV Yay., Istanbul: 1992, p. 206.

[6] In antiquity, Harezmi was known as Chorasmia. See: Suniti Kumar Chatterji, "Al-Biruni and Sanskrit", Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. 83.

[7] Al-Biruni, p. XV.

[8] Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 10.

[9] Regarding Biruni's presence in the sultan's palace, researchers state that he was there for study reasons. Considering the time in which he lived, it is clear that there were very few libraries in which you could study. Of course, the richest places with different literature and manuscripts were mainly the premises such as the palaces of rulers or princes where Biruni was found in his early years. See. Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 10.

[10] Kamaruzaman, The Works, p. 30-31.; Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 11.

[11] Kamaruzaman, TheWorks, p. 32.; Al-Biruni, p. XV.; Chatterji, Al-Biruni, p. 85.; Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 11.

[12] Jacques Waardenburg, Other Dinlere Bakışları of Muslims, Chev. Fuat

Aydın, Ensar Neşriyat, İstanbul: 2013, p. 77.; Kamaruzaman, TheWorks, p. 32.

[13] Alessandro Bausani, "L'India Vista da Due Grandi Muslim Personality: Babar and Biruni", Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. 55-60.

[14] Kamaruzaman, TheWorks, p. 33.

[15] Another section of scholars think that Biruni was 79 or 81 years old when he died. Al-Biruni, p. XVI.

[16] Sartoni expresses himself about Birun like this: "He was a traveler, a philosopher, mathematician, geographer and encyclopedist. He was the greatest of Muslim scholars and one of the greatest scholars of the entire world." While Jacques Boilot says: "Al-Biruni, who was really ahead of his time, is a forerunner of mutual understanding and an intercultural relationship between East and West.". Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 32-33.

[17] A. Jeffery, "Al-Biruni's Contribution to Comparative Religion", Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. 126-127.; Pope, Alberuni, p. 285.

[18] Ibn Sina was 11 years younger than Biruni and according to the researcher of Islamic sciences Fuat Sezgin, at the time when this debate took place he was only 17 years old. Very difficult issues were discussed between them, such as the speed of light or how the earth warms, and at the end of the exchange of letters, Biruni praised Ibn Sinan as a young scientist. See: Sezgin, Islam'da Bilim, V. I, p. 31.; Muhammed Tanci, "Beyruni'nin İbn Sina'ya Yönelttiğı Bazi Sorular, İbn-i Sina'nın Cevaları ve bu Cevaplara Beyruni'nin İtirazları", Beyruni'ye Armağan, TTK Yay., Ankara: 1974, p. 231.

[19] Tümer, biruni, p. 209.; Pope, Alberuni, p. 282.

[20] Fuat Sezgin, Islamic Science and Technology, Chev. Abdurrahman Aliy, V. I, İBB Kültür A. Ş. Yay., İstanbul: 2008, p. 12.

[21] D. Ahsen Batur who translated the work into Turkish Al-Asaru'l Bakiyya, refers to the scholar Yakut al-Hamevi who says that Biruni had written over 180 works during his life, which were about 13.000 pages. A list of books attributed to Birun is given at the end of the work. See: Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 18-19, 400-409.

[22] Al-Biruni, The Chronology of Ancient Nations, Translated and Edited by Edward Sachau, Publishers to the India Office, London: 1879, p. IV-V.; al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 21.; Kamaruzaman, The Works, p. 52-53.

[23] Al-Biruni, Tahkik ma li'l-Hind, Translated and Edited by Edward Sachau, Munshiram Manoharhal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi: 19100, p. VII-XLIX.; Chatterji, Al-Biruni, p. 83.; Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 25.

[24] JH Kramers, "Al-Biruni's Determination of Geographical Longitude by Measuring the Distances", Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. 179-193.

[25] Syed Hasan Barani, "Muslim Researchers in Geodesy", Al-Biruni, Commemoration Volume AH362-AH1362, Council of the Iran Society Publications, Calcutta: 1951, p. 33-39.; Tümer, biruni, p. 213.

[26] Regarding various aspects of the methodology used by Biruni see: Kamaruzaman, The works, p. 75.

[27] Kamaruzaman, TheWorks, p. 78; Al-Biruni, India, p. 6.

[28] Al-Biruni, India, s. XXIV.

[29] Kamaruzaman, TheWorks, p. 87.

[30] Kamaruzaman, TheWorks, p. 97.

[31] Al-Biruni, Asar, p. 5.

[32] Biruni explains the beginning of the story in this way:History is a space of time, which started from the first day of a certain year. It can be the sending of a prophet endowed with various miracles, the enthronement of a powerful king and despot, the face of a people with a flood, disaster, epidemic or famine, the change of power, the arrival of a new people instead of the existing one or the occurrence of a great celestial event, important events that may occur on earth are mentioned with acertain date." Al-Biruni, Maziden, p. 52.

[33] Jeffrey, Al-Biruni's Contribution, p. 140-141.; Pope, Alberuni, p. 283.